Method of removing organic materials using aqueous cleaning solutions

ABSTRACT

The pharmaceutical, fine chemical, and construction industries have aggressively sought means of eliminating organic solvents from their cleaning operations because many organic cleaning solvents have been characterized as hazardous or toxic wastes. As a substitute, 3% hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) in water effectively removed tenacious residues from glass surfaces. In order to simulate industrial cleaning conditions, asphalt was employed as a representative surrogate for tough-to-clean residues. Asphalt cleaning was dramatically enhanced by mild heating: whereas 3% H 2 O 2  at pH 9.5 and 23° C. removed 100% of a fresh asphalt residue within 60 minutes, heating to 53° C. achieved full removal within 2 minutes. As asphalt became aged or dried by exposure to air, longer cleaning durations were required. None-the-less, all of the asphalt could still be removed with 3% H 2 O 2  at pH 9.5 and 70° C. within 2 to 60 minutes, even after the asphalt had dried onto glass for a week. H 2 O 2  removed asphalt even when visible light was not present. When the H 2 O 2  was excluded, a pH 9.5 bath at 70° C. removed only a small fraction of this asphalt, if any.

INTRODUCTION

[0001] The objectives of this research have been oriented toward minimizing the waste generation during cleaning operations in the pharmaceutical, photography, military, and construction industries. Traditionally, organic solvents have been used to clean reaction vessels that are used in the above industries, and this cleaning generates a major source of hazardous solvent waste. Moreover, cleaning requires much time and labor, and it therefore incurs considerable overall cost. This is especially true for batch operations where the reactions and the product varies from batch to batch, and the vessels must be thoroughly cleaned between each campaign. Industrial operators lament that the most difficult residues to clean include tars, resinous-like deposits, and organic stains that are baked onto reactor walls following crystallization or drying steps. Traditional cleaning methods have employed organic solvents such as acetone, methanol, and toluene; and these solvents dissolve and remove these residues. However, both industry and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) aggressively seek means of eliminating these organic solvents, because they must be disposed of as toxic and hazardous wastes, causing considerable expense, paperwork, and liability. If an aqueous-based cleaner could replace organic cleaning solvents and yet have the same or better effectiveness of cleaning, it would create a major favorable impact industry-wide, and offer a tremendous opportunity toward achieving environmentally benign manufacturing.

[0002] Investigations have focused on developing a novel method to replace organic solvents and to enhance the cleaning by employing an aqueous-based hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) solution [1-4]. The authors found that even at the low concentration of 3%, H₂O₂ effectively removed difficult-to-clean residues from glass or stainless steel surfaces within reasonable lengths of time. This H₂O₂ cleaning removal was effective for asphalt, food grease, axle grease, xanthan gum, paints, glues, and a host of other sticky residues [1,4]. The authors also found that a moderately high pH value (above 9.5) and iron (Fe³⁺) catalyst enhanced cleaning [1-3].

[0003] Hydrogen Peroxide and Hydroxyl Radicals

[0004] Hydrogen peroxide; and the hydroxyl radicals (⁺OH) and/or perhydroxyl radicals (HO₂.) that it can produce under the appropriate circumstances will attack organic compounds very aggressively and initiate fast radical chain reactions [5-19]. These oxidation reactions can convert organic substances to more oxidized and oxygenated products. The products may in many cases contain more oxygen-containing functional groups, such as hydroxyl (—OH), carboxyl (—C(O)OH), peroxyl (R₃C—OOH), carbonyl (>C=O), and percarboxyl (—C(O)OOH) groups [5-8, 20-26]. Many of these functional groups would deprotonate to the charged species at pH values ranging from 4 to 10 [27]. The deprotonated forms are most likely to be soluble in water, and therefore, high pH values would seem to be more effective than low pH values in most cases. However, pH values as high as 12.5 need not be employed, as solutions with a pH value greater than 12.5 are characterized as “hazardous”. Moderation in pH could also prolong the life of glass surfaces and eliminate regulatory paperwork.

[0005] One of the principal kinetic species for these oxidations could be the hydroxyl radical (⁺OH), which is one of the key oxidants in advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) [14-16]. The activation energy between active radicals and organics is close to zero kJ/mol and oxidation occurs rapidly [17]. Conventionally, the appeal of AOPs has been the prospect of complete oxidation, i.e., mineralization to CO₂ of organic contaminants at or near ambient temperature and pressure. However, the strategy for the technique herein relies merely on partial oxidation rather than complete mineralization. This strategy requires considerably less H₂O₂ than a complete mineralization approach would require.

[0006] The hydroxyl radical is an extremely powerful oxidant and it has the second highest reduction potential next to fluorine. Although it must be mentioned that kinetic factors often outweigh thermodynamic properties in controlling the oxidation reactions, a stronger oxidant often also exhibits a faster oxidation reaction. Indeed, the hydroxyl radical reacts with organic compounds much more rapidly and also much less chemically selectively than most other strong oxidants including ozone. The second-order reaction rate constants of hydroxyl radical with most organic molecules are generally in the range of 10⁷ to 10¹⁰ M⁻¹s⁻¹, among which the rate constants with most aromatic compounds are generally in the range of 10⁹ to 10¹⁰ M⁻¹s⁻¹ [5, 18].

[0007] Generally, authors have cited that the initiation of ⁺OH radicals in aqueous H₂O₂ solutions has involved UV radiation, reaction with ozone, and reaction with iron ion catalysts [5-13, 18, 22-27]. However, for the experiments herein, H₂O₂ was effective for removing asphalt when none of these catalysts were intentionally added. Asphalt removal proceeded even when ambient indoor light was excluded. This suggests that even when none of the above initiating agents are involved, a fair amount of oxidizing radicals could still be produced when H₂O₂ solutions are heated and/or react with organic matter or other species at the pH 9.5 range employed in this research.

[0008] Typical Reactions of Organic Compounds with Hydroxyl Radicals and Hydrogen Peroxide

[0009] Due to its high and indiscriminate reactivity, ⁺OH can react with almost all types of organics, such as aromatic, aliphatic, and lipid. The hydroxyl radical reacts with organic compounds by three major mechanisms: hydroxy addition, hydrogen abstraction, and electron transfer. Organic compounds containing aromatic systems and carbon-carbon multiple bonds usually undergo addition reactions with ⁺OH due to the rich π-electron cloud on the aromatic ring and multiple bonds, respectively. Hydrogen abstraction is the usual reaction with saturated organic compounds or unsaturated compounds with long side chains containing weak allylic hydrogens. When ⁺OH abstracts a hydrogen atom from a saturated hydrocarbon compound or adds to an unsaturated hydrocarbon, an organic carbon-centered radical is formed and then reacts quickly with oxygen to yield a peroxyl radical when oxygen is present. This radical can then undergo many reactions to produce more oxidized and oxygenated products. Electron transfer is usually found in reactions between +OH and inorganic ions. Sometimes, organic free radicals are formed as transient intermediates during these reactions. These intermediate radicals are further oxidized by O₂, H₂O₂, ⁺OH or other intermediates to form final stable, oxidized products.

[0010] Examples of these reaction mechanisms are listed as follows. Some of these examples have been identified for air-phase reactions, and it is anticipated that similar reactions might occur in the aqueous phase.

[0011] Aromatic Compounds

[0012] Aromatic compounds react with ⁺OH via both addition and abstraction reactions. The addition reaction forms energy rich ⁺OH-aromatic adducts, which can further be oxidized to more oxygenated products and produce other radicals [28]. The addition reactions often lead to a mixture of complex products. For example, the addition of ⁺OH to benzene produces the cyclohexadienyl anion radical with an unpaired electron. The process is found to be very fast. The dienyl radical disproportionates to a mixture of complex products including phenol and hydroxylated biphenols [17]. Further oxidation of phenol leads to the production of benzoquinones and carboxylic acids. Phenol also undergoes addition reaction to form catechol and hydroquinone [29]. Naphthalene can also be oxidized to naphthol [30].

[0013] Substituent group elimination reactions of aromatic compounds might also occur, generating phenol and organic radicals [31]. ⁺OH can also abstract a hydrogen atom from a hydrocarbon substituent of an aromatic compound to produce benzaldehyde or ketophenone and other radicals [28, 31]. Other complex products might also be formed.

[0014] The reaction of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons with H₂O₂ often leads to ring cleavage. For example, when acetic acid is present, phenanthrene reacts with H₂O₂ to produce diphenic acid [29, 32]:

[0015] Alphatic Compounds

[0016] The ⁺OH reacts with alkane via H-abstraction reaction to form primary, secondary or tertiary alkyl radicals, which can be further reduced to alkyl peroxy radicals (R—OO^(+) and alkoxy radicals (R—O) ⁺) when O₂ is present [28, 30]. These radicals will then decompose or combine with oxygen or other radicals to produce final stable products [28, 30, 33-38], among which including organic hydroperoxide, ketone, aldehyde, and alcohol.

[0017] The addition reactions between ⁺OH and alkenes can lead to the formation of alcohol, diols and hydroxy ketones [28, 30, 39].

[0018] The addition of ⁺OH to ketones can produce aldehyde, dicarbonyl compounds and other radicals [28].

[0019] Biochemical Compounds

[0020] The ⁺OH can also react with biochemical compounds and break them into smaller molecules. For example, when oxygen is present, protein undergoes fragmentation reaction with ⁺OH to form degraded and cleaved products [39-40]. Lipids can also undergo autoxidation reaction (lipid peroxidation) with ⁺OH to form alcohol and organic radicals [39, 41-42].

[0021] Nitrogen Compounds

[0022] Nitrogen compounds generally undergo addition reaction with H₂O₂ to form oxime, hydroxylamine or amine oxide [43].

[0023] Other Reactions

[0024] In addition to the radical reactions, H₂O₂ itself can also increase its reactivity when it is activated by organics to form intermediate peroxide. Reactions of organic compounds with the intermediate peroxide can become dramatically faster than those with H₂O₂ alone. For example, when H₂O₂ reacts with acetic anhydride, peroxyacetic acid is produced which can react with organic compounds 10⁵ times more rapidly than can H₂O₂ [44-45].

[0025] Hydrogen Peroxide Decomposition

[0026] Hydrogen peroxide also decomposes in the liquid phase and forms oxygen and water based on the following stoichiometry: $\begin{matrix} {{H_{2}O_{2}}->{{\frac{1}{2}O_{2}} + {H_{2}O}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

[0027] This reaction is first order and has a temperature dependent rate described by the following expression [46]: $\begin{matrix} {K = {1.5 \times 10^{12}{\exp \left( {- \frac{12,832}{T}} \right)}}} & (2) \end{matrix}$

[0028] where K is in s⁻¹ and T is in Kelvins. Therefore any closed space that contains H₂O₂ should be vented. For example, a liter of 3% H₂O₂ solution that completely disintegrates can generate more than 10 liters of O₂ gas at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature [47-48].

[0029] Asphalt

[0030] Natural asphalts are crude oils that contain large proportions of high-boiling constituents that boil above 600° C. [49-50]. Asphalts are complex aggregations of fairly large molecules, which include compounds that contain oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and certain metals such as vanadium, nickel, etc. Asphalts have been traditionally separated into three major components: asphaltenes, saturates and unsaturated oils. Asphalt also contains heavy resinous compounds. Among these components, asphaltenes are the most essential constituent and the major chemical and physical properties of asphalts are closely related to their asphaltene content [51-53]. Asphaltenes are insoluble in n-heptane and pentane, but soluble in benzene or toluene.

[0031] Asphaltenes are generally more polar and larger in size than the saturates and unsaturated oils. Resins are related to asphaltenes in that both asphaltenes and resins are formed by paraffinic and naphthenic chains as well as condensed aromatic hydrocarbons, and they both represent the polar fractions of crude oils [54]. The functional groups present in asphaltenes and resins often contain oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. These heteroatom groups are responsible for aggregating molecules of asphaltic materials and for their tendency to adsorb onto the solid-solution interface [54].

[0032] Asphaltene can be considered as a system of polycondensed molecules arranged in stacked, multi-ring structures. These aromatic ring structures also bear alkyl side chains [55-58] and occasional carbonyl or hydroxyl groups [59]. Although asphaltenes are complex mixtures, experimental data confirmed that they generally have consistent overall elemental compositions with a fairly constant H : C atomic ratio of about 1.15 : 100 [60].

[0033] Asphaltenes generally originate from underground where the environment is very reduced. When asphaltenes are removed from their underground origins and become exposed to atmospheric oxygen, the ambient oxygen can substantially increases their oxygen content, particularly where the asphaltene structure directly contacts with oxygen. This same oxidation phenomenon has also been noticed when pharmaceutical organic compounds and photographic dyes are exposed to oxygen. It could be anticipated that H₂O₂, which is a stronger oxidant than oxygen, could accelerate or alter this oxidation progression.

[0034] Asphalt was anticipated to provide a good surrogate for pharmaceutical intermediates and photographic dye residues because all three of these groups of compounds are often sticky, aromatic, reduced, and susceptible to alteration via oxidation.

[0035] Asphaltenes are also most responsible for the viscosity of the asphalt. Generally, aged asphalts have higher asphaltenes content and are more viscous and more difficult to clean than fresh asphalts [61-63].

[0036] One of the most important processes in the removal of an organic coating from a surface is to create local defects, i.e. penetrable spots in the coating film. The defects allow the solution to penetrate the coating and contact the underlying surface materials. This penetration may facilitate loosening of the adhesion between the surface and the film, and it eventually may contribute to the removal of the film. Studies [64] and experience have shown that such defects (or holidays) that are often present in commercial coatings often penetrate from the coating surface to the substrate. A study [64] showed that the wetted surface area beneath a particular sample was considerably greater than the holiday area of penetration through the film. This suggested that although the coating had very few holidays, when the solution reached the interface, it rapidly spread along that interface [64].

EXPERIMENTAL

[0037] Materials

[0038] Roofing Asphalt A (Premium Liquid Roof Coating, Fibred, 1995 vintage) was obtained from Agway Inc., Syracuse, N.Y., and used as received. The container of this asphalt was tightly sealed at all times, except during sampling. Moreover, “fresh” asphalt was always sampled from a container that had not previously been opened. Roofing Asphalt B (Asphalt Asbestos Roof Coating, 1994 vintage) was obtained from Frederick Trading Co., Frederick, Md., and used as received. Following initial experimentation, a portion of this asphalt was stored within a container that was cracked open to air to discern the effects of aging on asphalt removal rate. According to container labeling, Asphalts A and B both contained asphalt, mineral spirits, encapsulated asbestos, and a maximum volatile organic carbon (VOC) content of 300 g/L. Asphalt A and B were selected because they were manufactured to exhibit a composition, viscosity, and behavior that was similar to each other. However, no two asphalts are identical, and some distinctions between them could be anticipated and were indeed observed.

[0039] Hydrogen peroxide (30%, w/w) without phosphate stabilizer (<2 ppm) was obtained from VWR Scientific. From this stock solution, 3% w/w H₂O₂ solutions were prepared volumetrically using distilled water. Exact concentrations of H₂O₂ solutions were monitored by the Iodimetric titration method, as discussed below. Pre-cleaned microscope slides were obtained from Becton Dickinson Labware. Reagent grade chemicals were obtained from Fisher Scientific and Aldrich Chemical Company.

[0040] Methods

[0041] Cleaning Process

[0042] Microscope slides were prepared for experimentation by first rinsing them in acetone to ensure that they had a consistent dust- and oil-free surface. Then they were dried and weighed. Asphalt was then coated on both sides of the slide in a one square inch area on each side. Then the weight was immediately monitored again to obtain the wet mass applied. The wet mass was normally in the range of 0.15 to 0.25 g, and this corresponded to a wet film thickness of approximately 0.2 mm to 0.4 mm. In most cases, the asphalt-coated portion of the slide was then immediately submerged into 250 mL H₂O₂ solution. When tests investigated how prior air drying affected subsequent cleaning rate, the submersion was delayed, so that the asphalt could dry in air for a pre-arranged duration. After the prescribed immersion time, the glass slides were raised back out of the cleaning solution, allowed to dry in ambient air for at least 12 hours, and then weighed again. Percent asphalt remaining was computed as the final (dried) asphalt mass divided by the initial (undried) asphalt mass, multiplied by 100.

[0043] The H₂O₂ solution was contained within a 400 mL glass beaker, which rested on a hot plate stirrer. Mixing proceeded via a magnetic stirring bar at a speed of 500 rpm (G≈700 sec⁻¹) throughout the experiment, unless otherwise indicated. The solutions were pre-heated to desired temperatures before the coated slide was immersed. Temperatures were maintained within ±3° C. tolerance during the experiments. A 3.0% w/w H₂O₂ solution was used in all the experiments unless otherwise indicated. All the solutions were also pre-adjusted to pH 9.5±0.2 using concentrated NaOH solution. The 9.5 pH value of the solution was selected because Brant and Cannon [3] had observed favorable results at this pH. During these experiments, the asphalt that dislodged from the glass surface floated to the surface of the solution. Both in these experiments and all others, the dislodged material was skimmed out of the beaker soon after becoming dislodged. Unless otherwise indicated, these experiments were conducted under the presence of ambient indoor luminescent light.

[0044] Multiple experiments were performed at each data point to ensure the accuracy of the experiments, and the results below identify this variability. Asphalt removal was considered to be virtually complete when the final total mass equaled the initial slide mass, and none of the black asphalt film could be visually observed on the clear microscope slide surface.

[0045] Iodimetric Titration Method for Measuring H₂O₂ Concentration

[0046] The Iodimetric titration test monitored H₂O₂ concentration [65]. In this test, H₂O₂ sample was added to a mixture of 100 mL distilled water, 10 mL H₂SO₄ (6 N), 10 mL KI (100 g/l), and 5 mL (NH₄)₆Mo₇O₂₄+4H₂O (1 g/L). The H₂O₂ sample solution was made to contain approximately 40 mg of 100% H₂O₂. After these ingredients were mixed, they remained stored in a dark place for 10 minutes, and then they were titrated with Na₂S₂O₃+5H₂O (˜0.10 N) until reaching the end point of the titration. This caused the solution to become decolorized, which facilitated quantitative end-point measurement. Hydrogen peroxide concentration (grams of H₂O₂ per liter) was then calculated as: Conc.(g/L)=(17.01*A*N)/V, where A is the volume in mL of Na₂S₂O₃+5H₂O solution used in the titration; N is the exact normality of Na₂S₂O₃+5H₂O solution used; V is the volume in mL of H₂O₂ sample being titrated. The concentration of H₂O₂ obtained was then converted to weight percent using the density at the corresponding concentration. In accordance with standard data of FMC Corp. [47], the densities of H₂O₂ solutions at 3% and 30% by weight are 1.01 g/cm³ and 1.11 g/cm³, respectively. A 3% w/w H₂O₂ concentration was targeted, and actual monitored H₂O₂ concentrations varied from 2.8% to 3.1% w/w.

[0047] Results and Discussion

[0048] Hydrogen Peroxide Cleaning Effect

[0049] The hydrogen peroxide cleaning effect was investigated by soaking asphalt-coated microscope slides in water and H₂O₂ solutions that were moderately mixed, and then examining the asphalt remained on the slide after the experiments. Glass slides that had been coated with fresh Asphalt A were soaked in 3% H₂O₂ solution (pH 9.5) at room temperature. After 30 minutes of soaking, only 8 to 10% of the asphalt remained, and within 60 minutes all but 2% of the asphalt was removed (FIG. i). A thin film of the asphalt still remained on the slide which was visibly apparent. Thus, 3% H₂O₂ soaking at 23° C. and pH 9.5 removed most, but not all, of the asphalt within 30-60 minutes.

[0050] For comparison in control experiments, the slide was also soaked in distilled water without any added H₂O₂. These tests were also conducted at pH 9.5 and at room temperature. Results revealed that almost none of the asphalt, other than volatiles, was removed. Indeed, after 60 minutes of soaking in water alone, 78 to 82 mass percent of asphalt remained on the slide (FIG. i). This level conformed to a 78 to 82% that remained when the slides were merely dried in air without soaking. This loss could be attributed merely to the release of volatiles (up to 300 g/L). Thus, mere soaking in water at pH 9.5 and 23° C. achieved no net asphalt mass removal.

[0051] Pursuant to the incomplete asphalt removal at 23° C., the authors sought to determine whether mildly elevated temperature enhanced removal of this fresh asphalt. When the immersion temperature was elevated to 53° C., asphalt removal improved: fresh Asphalt A could be completely removed within 1.5 to 2 minutes of immersion (FIG. i).

[0052] Effect of Drying Asphalt on Glass Surface

[0053] Another series of experiments discerned the effect of asphalt drying. In these experiments, microscope slides were coated with fresh Asphalt A, and then they were allowed to dry in air at room temperature for pre-arranged durations. After the drying duration, these slides were then immersed in a 3% H₂O₂ solution at a pH of 9.5 and temperatures of 23, 53, or 70° C. Following an 8-hour drying duration, a 90 minute immersion in H₂O₂ at 23° C. removed little of the asphalt: 78 to 80% of the asphalt still remained on the slide (FIG. ii). This contrasted to greater than 98% removal within 60 minutes when the slide was immersed in H₂O₂ solution while the asphalt was freshly coated (FIG. i).

[0054] When the immersion temperature was elevated to 53° C., after Asphalt A had air-dried on the glass slide for 6 hours, H₂O₂ immersion completely removed the asphalt within 60 minutes (FIG. iii). As an even more stringent test, the slide was coated with fresh asphalt and air dried for 31 hours. Then the slides were immersed in 3% H₂O₂ at 53° C. following this drying. Even after 90 minutes of soaking, 30 to 37% of the asphalt remained on the slide (FIG. iii).

[0055] In response to this, the cleaning rigor was advanced yet further by heating the immersion temperature to 70° C. This likewise improved cleaning performance yet further: after fresh Asphalt A had air-dried for 31 hours, a 70° C. H₂O₂ immersion removed 100% of the asphalt within 15 minutes (FIG. iv).

[0056] So then the authors tested an even more recalcitrant film, which was created by allowing the asphalt to air-dry on a glass slide for a week. Following this drying, only 75 to 89% of the asphalt could be removed after 45 minutes of soaking in 3% H₂O₂ solution at 70° C. (FIG. iv).

[0057] Asphalts with even longer drying times of 2-6 weeks were also tested by the authors. FIG. (v) depicts 3% H₂O₂ cleaning efficiency when the asphalt was dried on the glass surface for 1, 2 or 6 weeks. After 30 to 75 minutes of H₂O₂ immersion at 70° C., a span of 0 to 60% of the asphalt mass remained on the glass surface, and the data suggests that the percent of asphalt remaining did not correlate significantly to the number of weeks that the asphalt pre-dried. Indeed, the results in FIG. (v) displayed considerable variability in the percent of asphalt mass that could be removed within a given time frame. Following 45 minutes of immersion in 3% H₂O₂ at 70° C., for example, one slide exhibited complete removal of asphalt whereas others exhibited 20% and 45% of the asphalt mass remaining that was not completely removed until 60 minutes soaking (FIG. v).

[0058] In this and other cases, the asphalt that remained on a surface accumulated into beads that were perhaps about 0.3-0.5 cm in diameter. Eventually, these beads became disengaged from the surface as a sphere. In areas other than these beads, the glass surfaces had become completely cleaned as determined by visual inspection. Thus, even following extensive drying, asphalt could be dislodged from much of the glass surfaces. The authors hypothesize that this variability in mass loss was attributed to variability in how coating defects and holidays developed during initial cleaning and how the asphalt's surface tension caused it to adhere to itself and to the surface. This variability could also be expected in full-scale applications of the H₂O₂ cleaning method.

[0059] Effect of Temperature on H₂O₂ Concentration Profile

[0060] At this point, it became important to consider how temperature influenced the rate of H₂O₂ degradation. Mild heating caused the H₂O₂ to gradually decompose and (presumably) generate water and oxygen bubbles. The decomposition of H₂O₂ solution and consequent bubble formation can be visually observed during the experiments at temperatures of 50° C. or higher. The rate of H₂O₂ decomposition increased with increasing temperature, as shown in FIG. (vi). At temperatures of 48° C. or lower, the H₂O₂ concentration remained fairly constant throughout the duration of 1-hour experiments. At 53±3° C., the H₂O₂ concentration decreased slightly, starting at 3.0±0.1%, and declining to 2.6±0.1% after 90 minutes. In contrast, 70±3° C. temperatures caused the H₂O₂ composition to decrease dramatically, starting at 3.0±0.2%, and declining to 1.8±0.2% in 30 minutes and yet further to 0.4±0.1% in 90 minutes (FIG. vi). Yet higher temperatures, up to 100° C., caused the H₂O₂ to decompose and form bubbles at far more rapid rates, as determined by visual inspection. The decomposition rates calculated at 53 and 70° C. were roughly twice as fast as Equation (2) (above) would predict for converting H₂O₂ to H₂O and O_(2.) These higher decomposition rates might be due to (a) the stirring during the experiment, or (b) the basicity of the solution (pH˜9.5), or (c) other reactions that hydrogen peroxide may have engaged in.

[0061] These H₂O₂ decomposition measurements were conducted while an asphalt-coated slide was immersed in the solution: i.e. during the progression of the experiments that have been depicted in FIG. (ix) (below). Decomposition was also tested when H₂O₂ solution contained no asphalt-coated slides (figure not shown herein). Comparisons revealed no measurably significant difference in the H₂O₂ concentration profile regardless of whether the asphalt was present or not.

[0062] Hydrogen Peroxide Solution Replacement

[0063] On the basis of the above data, then, another set of tests were conducted with the asphalt samples that had dried onto glass slides for one week in order to determine whether an even more rigorous cleaning strategy could be achieved. These tests employed 70° C. immersion and commenced with a solution that initially contained 3% H₂O₂. However, during these experiments, after immersion had proceeded for 30 minutes, the asphalt-coated slides were immersed in a new batch of 3% H₂O₂ solution. This replacement solution had been pre-heated to 70° C. immediately before this event. With this approach, 100% of the asphalt was consistently removed from the glass surface within 45 to 60 minutes, as shown in FIG. (vii).

[0064] Effect of Air-Aging During Asphalt Storage

[0065] As asphalt became aged by exposure to air, it visibly became more viscous. It also became more recalcitrant to cleaning. Experiments were performed on these asphalts that had undergone different extents of aging process. These tests were conducted at room temperature and employed a pH of 9.5. In the aging process, A portion of Asphalt B was stored in a container while the lid of the container was partially opened and the container remained within a fume hood. After Asphalt B had aged for 2 to 6 weeks, it was applied to microscope slide surfaces and H₂O₂ cleaning experiments were conducted. Results indicated that 105 minutes H₂O₂ exposure was required to remove 100% of the asphalt (FIG. viii) (adapted from [3]). Asphalt B was also aged for 9 months and then coated on microscope slides. With this aging, only 65% of the asphalt could be removed after soaked in 3% H₂O₂ solution, even for 4 hours (FIG. viii). When fresh Asphalt A was tested from a freshly opened container, as discussed above, more than 98% of this could be removed via H₂O₂ immersion within 60 minutes.

[0066] Temperature Effect with Aged Asphalt

[0067] Experiments also tested the effect of temperature on these aged Asphalt B samples that had previously become aged for 9 months. At 53° C., it took only 60 minutes to remove 100% of the asphalt, and at 70° C., it took a mere 5 minutes to remove all of the asphalt (FIG. ix). Thus, mild heating dramatically enhanced the cleaning effectiveness of H₂O₂ with this aged asphalt.

[0068] The experiments at 70° C. were also repeated when visible light was not present for Asphalt B that had aged for 20 months. The presence or absence of light caused no apparent difference.

[0069] Physical-Chemical Phenomena

[0070] The physical changes of the asphalt and H₂O₂ solution during these experiments were also observed. For example, gas bubbles (presumably O₂) were observed when the experiments employed H₂O₂ solution at elevated temperature. These bubbles formed around the stirring bar and also within the solution before the immersion. More bubbles also appeared as soon as the asphalt-coated slide was submerged into H₂O₂ solution. Higher solution temperatures corresponded to more bubbles in solution. In contrast, when water control experiments included no H₂O₂, these bubbles did not form. At room temperature, initial inspection revealed few bubbles in solution or on the asphalt coat. As time progressed, the number of bubbles increased, both in solution and on the asphalt coat. The bubbles that clung to the asphalt coat helped the asphalt to become dislodged and rise.

[0071] The asphalt removal process was characterized first by an initial creation of a small holiday within the asphalt coat that penetrated through to the glass surface. These small clear areas broadened into progressively larger clear areas as exposure to H₂O₂ continued. This proceeded until eventually all of the asphalt was removed from the glass surface.

[0072] The authors herein propose that since the organic “coating” on reactor vessels that result from asphaltic and pharmaceutical chemicals are most likely to be non-uniform, they may contain such holidays to, allow the H₂O₂ solution to penetrate through the organic matter coating. Also, since H₂O₂ is such a powerful oxidant, it may also be able to create holidays in the coating by aggressively attacking and disintegrating the thinner parts of the coating. Once H₂O₂ reaches the interface between the surface and the coating, presumably it will spread out and react with the organic matters at the interface, and therefore weaken the adhesion between the surface and the coating. This will significantly increase the removal efficiency by H₂O₂ because only the organic matter at the interface needs to be altered or oxidized in order for all of the residue to be dislodged from the surface.

[0073] Bubbles that were formed by the decomposition of H₂O₂ appeared to help the overall cleaning process, but they did not appear to account for the full cleaning effectiveness. The authors propose that the most favorable cleaning conditions are ones that offer a balance between (a) higher temperature, which enhance the rates of reaction and bubble formation and H₂O₂ reactivity with the asphalt material, versus (b) lower temperatures, which limited the rate at which H₂O₂ decomposed. The laboratory experiments herein suggested that 70° C. produced favorable cleaning results when 3% H₂O₂ at pH 9.5 was used to clean asphalt from glass surfaces.

[0074] Summary and Conclusion

[0075] Hydrogen peroxide could effectively replace organic solvents in cleaning asphalt from glass surfaces and in cleaning other organic residues that behave similarly to asphalt, particularly when cleaning time frames of minutes to hours are acceptable. Many process residues that the pharmaceutical and fine chemical industries would encounter could be expected to be less recalcitrant to H₂O₂ cleaning than asphalt is [1-2].

[0076] Mild heating enhances the cleaning process dramatically. Aged asphalt or air-dried asphalt became removed more slowly than fresh asphalt. However, heating to 70° C. could remove all of the asphalt within an hour, even when the asphalt had air-dried onto a glass surface for a week and when visible light is not present. Hydrogen peroxide decomposition speeds up at elevated temperature, especially at 53° C. or higher. Thus, replenishing H₂O₂ solution during the cleaning process also enhanced the effectiveness. This research suggests that H₂O₂ is a promising aqueous cleaner for residues that are similar to asphalt. This could include many of the residues that are encountered by the pharmaceutical, chemical and manufacturing companies.

[0077] Acknowledgments

[0078] This research was first presented at the AIlChE Summer National Meeting in July, 1995 in Boston, Mass. The research has been sponsored by the Emissions Reduction Research Center (ERRC), the National Science Foundation, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the U. S. Army. Funding for the ERRC has originated from eleven pharmaceutical and photography industries.

[0079] Literature Cited

[0080] (1) Brant, F. R. “Catalytic Hydrogen Peroxide Cleaning,” Master Thesis, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa. 1995.

[0081] (2) Brant, F. R.; Cannon, F. S. American Chemical Society Hazardous Materials Control Symposium, Atlanta, Ga., September 1994.

[0082] (3) Brant, F. R.; Cannon, F. S. J. Environ. Sci. and Health 1996, in press.

[0083] (4) Zhang, X.; Cannon, F. S. AIChE Summer National Meeting, Jul. 30-Aug. 2, Boston, Mass. 1995.

[0084] (5) Strukul, G. In Catalytic Oxidations with Hydrogen Peroxide as Oxidant; Strukul, G., Eds.; Kluwer: Boston, Mass., 1992; pp 1-12.

[0085] (6) Von Sonntag, C. In Oxygen Radicals in Biology and Medicine, Simic, M. G. et al, Eds.;

[0086] Plenum Press: New York, N.Y., 1988; pp 47-58.

[0087] (7) Stadtmen, E. R.; Berlett, B S. In Oxygen Radicals in Biology and Medicine Simic, M. G. et al, Eds.; Plenum Press: New York, N.Y., 1988; pp 131-136.

[0088] (8) Hagg, W. R.; Yao, C. C. Environ, Sci. Technol. 1992, 26, 1005-1011.

[0089] (9) Hickel, B.; Sehested, K. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 1992, 39, 335-341.

[0090] (10) Buxton, G. V.; Elliot, A. J. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 1986, 27, 241-247.

[0091] (11) Fenton, H. J. H. J. Chem. Soc. 1894, 65, 899-906.

[0092] (12) Walling, C. Accounts of Chem. Res., 1975, 8, 125-134.

[0093] (13) Bielski, B. H. J. Chem. Oxidation Technol. for the Nineties, 5th Int'l Symp., Int'l Chem. Oxidation Assoc., Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, Tex., Feb. 15-17, 1995.

[0094] (14) Glaze, W. H.; Kang, J. W. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1989, 28, 1573-1580.

[0095] (15) Glaze, W. H. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1995, 34, 2314-2323.

[0096] (16) Glaze, W. H. et al, Water Pol. Res. J. Canada 1992, 27, 23-42.

[0097] (17) Huang, C. P.; Dong, C.; Tang, Z. Waste Management 1933, 13, 361-377.

[0098] (18) Farhataziz, T.; Ross, A. B. Natl. Stand. Ref. Data Ser. (U. S. Natl. Bur. Stand.) No.59, 1977.

[0099] (19) Buxton, R.; Bourbigot, M. M.; Dore, M. Ozone: Sci. & Eng. 1984, 6, 163-183.

[0100] (20) Campos, D. Chem. Oxidation Technol. for the Nineties, 5th Int'l Symp., Int'l Chem. Oxidation Assoc., Vanderbilt Univ., Nashville, Tex., Feb. 15-17, 1995.

[0101] (21) Plant, L.; Jeff, M. Chem. Engin. 1994, September 16, EE16-20.

[0102] (22) Duguet, J. P. et al Ozone Sci. & Engr. 1990, 12, 281-293.

[0103] (23) Frankel, E. N. In Oxygen radicals in Biology and Medicine, Simic, M. G. et al, Eds.; Plenum Press: New York, N.Y., 1988; pp 265-282.

[0104] (24) Takahashi, N. Ozone Sci. & Engr. 1990, 12, 1-18.

[0105] (25) Singer, P. C.; Gurol, M. D. Wasser Berlin ′81, Proc. of the Fifth Ozone World Congress, Berlin, International Ozone Association, Vienna, Va., 1981.

[0106] (26) Glaze, W. H. In Water Quality and Treatment; Pontius, F. W., Eds.; McGraw-Hill: New York, N.Y., 1990; pp 747-780.

[0107] (27) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press: Boca Raton, Fla., 1993.

[0108] (28) Atkinson, R.; Lloyd, A. C. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 1984, 13, 315-440.

[0109] (29) Goor, G. In Catalytic Oxidations with Hydrogen Peroxide as Oxidant; Strukul, G., Eds.; Kluwer: Boston, Mass., 1992; pp 13-44.

[0110] (30) Olah, G. A.; Keumi, T.; Lecoq, J. C.; Fung, A. P.; Olar, J. A. J. Org. 1991, 56, 6148-6160.

[0111] (31) Atkinson, R. Chem. Rev. 1985, 85, 69-201.

[0112] (32) O'Connor, W. F.; Moriconi, E. J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1951, 73, 4044-4050.

[0113] (33) Tomat, R.; Rigo, A. J. Applied Electrochem 1985, 15, 167-173.

[0114] (34) Bothe, E.; Schulte-Frohlinde, D. Z. Naturforsch, B 1978, 33, 786-792.

[0115] (35) Schuchmann, M. N.; Von Sonntag, C. J. Phys. Chem. 1979, 83, 780-786.

[0116] (36) Gilbert, B. C.; Holmes, R. G. G.; Lane, H. A. M.; Normal, R. O. C. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. 1976, 2, 1047-1062.

[0117] (37) Schuchmann, M. N.; Von Sonntag, C. J. Photochem. 1981, 16, 289-302.

[0118] (38) Atkinson, R.; Carter, W. P. L. Chem. Rev. 1984, 84, 437-470.

[0119] (39) Edwards, J. O.; Curci, R. In Catalytic Oxidations with Hydrogen Peroxide as Oxidant; Strukul, G., Eds.; Kluwer: Boston, Mass., 1992; pp 97-152.

[0120] (40) Garrison, W. M. Chem. Rev. 1987, 87, 381-387.

[0121] (41) Halliwell, B., Eds. Oxygen Radicals and Tissue Injury; FASEB: Bethesda, Md., 1988.

[0122] (42) Dormandy, F.; Rice-Evans, C., Eds. Free Radicals: Recent Development in Lipid Chemistry, Experimental Pathology and Medicine: Richelien Press, 1988.

[0123] (43) Strukul, G. In Catalytic Oxidations with Hydrogen Peroxide as Oxidant; Strukul, G., Eds.; Kluwer: Boston, Mass., 1992; pp 177-222.

[0124] (44) Curci, R.; Edwards, J. O. In Catalytic Oxidations with Hydrogen Peroxide as Oxidant; Strukul, G., Eds.; Kluwer: Boston, Mass., 1992; pp 45-96.

[0125] (45) Edwards, J. O., Eds. Peroxide Reaction Mechanisms; Interscience: New York, N.Y., 1962.

[0126] (46) Melhem, G. A.; Fisher, H. G.; Shaw, D. A. 28th Loss Prevention Symp. AIChE Spring National Meeting, April, 1994.

[0127] (47) FMC Corporation Technical Bulletin, Hydrogen Peroxide Physical Propertie; FMC, NY, 1969.

[0128] (48) FMC Corporation Technical Bulletin No.104, Materials of Construction for Equipment in Use with Hydrogen Peroxide; FMC, NY, 1966.

[0129] (49) Gruse, W. A.; Stephens, D. R., Eds. The Chemical Technology of Petroleum; McGraw-Hill: New York, N.Y., 1960.

[0130] (50) Koots, J. A.; Speight, J. G. Fuel 1975, 54, 179-185.

[0131] (51) Traxler, R. N., Eds. Asphalt: Its Composition, Properties and Uses; Reinhold Publishing: London, 1961.

[0132] (52) Traxler, R. N.; Schweyer, H. E. Oil Gas J. 1953, 52, 158-164.

[0133] (53) Hewett, C. M.; Faid, R. W. 129th Meeting Am. Chem. Soc., Sympo. on Bituminous Materials, Dallas, Tex., April, 1956.

[0134] (54) Gonzalez, G.; Moreira, M. B. C. In Asphaltenes and Asphalts, 1. Developments in Petroleum Science, 40 A; Yen T. F.; Chilingarian, G. V., Eds.; Elsevier Science: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1994; pp 207-232.

[0135] (55) Speight, J. G. Appl. Spectrosc. Rev. 1972, 5, 211-217.

[0136] (56) Yen, T. F. Am. Chem. Soc., Div., Pet. Chem., Prepr. 1972, 17, F102-108.

[0137] (57) Sawatsky, H.; Boyd, M. L.; Montgomery, D. S. J. Inst. Pet., London 1967, 53, 162-168.

[0138] (58) Witherspoon, P. A.; Winniford, R. S. In Fundamental Aspects of Petroleum Geochemistry; Nagy, B.; Colombo, U., Eds.; Elsevier: New York, N.Y., 1967.

[0139] (59) Poljakove, A. A. et al, IIeme Symp. Int. Chimie des Composes Organiques du Soufre, Riga, June, 1980.

[0140] (60) Speight, J. G., Eds. The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum; Marcel Dekker: New York, N.Y., 1991.

[0141] (61) Girdler, R. B. Proc. Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists 1965, 34, 45-79.

[0142] (62) Lin, M. S. Trans. Res. Record 1995, 1507, 86-95.

[0143] (63) Lin, M. S. et al, In Asphaltenes: Fundamentals and Applications; Sheu, E. Y.; Mullins, O. C., Eds.; Plenum Press: New York, N.Y., 1995; pp 1-56.

[0144] (64) Armstrong, R. D.; Wright, J. D. J. Applied Electrochemistry 1992, 22, 795-800.

[0145] (65) Elf Atochem ATO, Technical information from Centre D' Application de Levallios.

[0146] Figure Captions and Legends

[0147] FIG.(i) Effect of H₂O₂ Cleaning of Fresh Asphalt A, pH 9.5. (): In Water at 23° C.; (▪): In 3% H₂O₂ at 23° C.; (▴): In 3% H₂O₂ at 53° C.

[0148] FIG.(ii) Effect of Drying on Slide of Fresh Asphalt A at 23° C., 3% H₂O₂, pH 9.5. (): 8 Hours Drying; (▪): No Drying.

[0149] FIG.(iii) Effect of Drying Time on Cleaning of Fresh Asphalt A at 53° C., , pH 9.5. (♦): Water, 31 Hours Drying; (): 3% H₂O₂, 31 Hours Drying; (▪): 3% H₂O₂, 6 Hours Drying; (▴):

[0150] 3% H₂O₂, No Drying.

[0151] FIG.(iv) Effect of Drying Time on Cleaning of Fresh Asphalt A at 70° C., 3% H₂O₂, pH 9.5. ():One Week Drying; (▪): 31 Hours Drying.

[0152] FIG.(v) Effect of Prolonged Pre-Drying on Cleaning of Asphalt A Dried on Slide, at 70° C., 3% H₂O₂, pH 9.5. (): Dried for 1 Week; (▪): Dried for 2 Weeks; (▴): Dried for 6 Weeks.

[0153] FIG.(vi) H₂O₂ Concentration Profile. (): At 48° C.; (▪): At 53° C.; (▴): At 70° C.

[0154] FIG.(vii) Effect of Replenishing H₂O₂ Solution on Cleaning of Asphalt A at 70° C., 3% H₂O₂,pH 9.5. ():Dried for 1 Week, H₂O₂ Not Replenished. (▪):Dried for 1 Week, H₂O₂ Replenished Every 30 Minutes.

[0155] FIG.(viii) Effect of Asphalt Aging (Stored with Top Partially Opened) at 23° C., 3% H₂O₂, pH 9.5. (): Asphalt B, Aged for 9 Months; (▴): Asphalt B, Aged for 2-6 Weeks; (▪): Fresh Asphalt A.

[0156] FIG.(ix) Effect of Temperature on Cleaning of Asphalt B, Air-aged for 9 Months, pH 9.5. (♦) Water at 70° C.; ():3% H₂O₂ at 23° C.; (▪):3% H₂O₂ at 53° C.; (▴):3% H₂O₂ at 70° C. 

I claim:
 1. A method of cleaning inorganic surfaces to remove water insoluble organic materials therefrom comprising a) treating said surfaces with an aqueous solution including i) an oxidant in an amount sufficient to convert non-polar residues to polar residues; ii) a pH adjusting agent in an amount sufficient to provide a pH greater than the isoelectric point for acid-type materials and less than the isoelectric point for basic-type materials.
 2. A method according to claim 1 wherein the temperature of the cleaning solution is maintained between about 40-100° C.
 3. A method according to claim 1 wherein the oxidant is hydrogen peroxide.
 4. A method according to claim 1 wherein the pH adjustment agent is ammonium hydroxide.
 5. A method according to claim 1 wherein the pH adjustment agent is hydrogen chloride.
 6. A method according to claim 1 wherein the aqueous solution further includes a surfactant.
 7. A method according to claim 6 wherein the surfactant is a mixture of an anionic and a nonionic surfactant.
 8. A method according to claim 6 wherein the surfactant is a mixture of a cationic and a nonionic surfactant.
 9. A method according to claim 6 wherein the surfactant is a mixture of an anionic and cationic surfactant.
 10. A method according to claim 6 wherein the aqueous solution further includes a defoaming agent. 